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2012 年 X月 Old and New Models for Office Automation Elliot Cole The emerging generation of office automation systems combines new and existing software and procedures. While managers may be able to select from a broad array of software tools, they may also be required to use certain others. This article discusses organization design as the context for office automation; mature computer based systems as one application of organization design variables; and emerging office automation systems as another application of those variables. The article concludes that Management Information System models developed for mature systems may be helpful where the use of software application is required for the individual worker; diffusion of innovation models recently developed for computing systems may be helpful where the type of software is optional for the individual worker. The emerging generation of office automation systems combines new concepts and components with existing ones. While there may be a combination of first-time applications for some organizational activities, there may be replacement applications for others. Our ability to understand and plan for office automation depends on the availability and adequacy of our models. This article examines some of the assumptions underlying office automation, and then evaluates the adequacy of current models applied to the analysis and implementation of both the first-time and replacement applications. The article begins with a discussion of office automation＇s context factors in organization design. Next is a discussion of mature computer-based information systems, particularly Management Information Systems (MIS), followed by their similarities and different from emerging information systems. The final section examines the use of diffusion of innovation models and their relevance to office automation studies within the scope of Information Science. Organization Design Organization design is concerned with the structure and function of organizations, and consequently occupies a central role in office automation activities. Such design involves two basic elements, the types of positions in organizations and control over task structure. Office automation systems assume the presence of both these elements. Types of Personnel Computers have been assisting humans for nearly 40 years. What makes the earlier user communities different from the emerging communities is the level of positions that are affected. Now managers are becoming end-users. In the past, white collar workers have been classified as professional, managerial, and clerical, based on the horizontal (breadth) and vertical (depth) specialization of their tasks. Professional positions have great vertical specialization, i.e., they require great depth of knowledge in a narrow area. In contrast, management positions require great horizontal specialization, i.e., they require great breadth of knowledge but with narrow depth. Managers are considered generalists rather than specialists. Clerical positions are narrow in breadth and depth. The first computer users were professionals (scientists) who applied information technology to extend the capabilities of their work teams. These “value-added“ applications, to use Landau, Bair, and Shalom terminology, included solving complex mathematical problems. Today＇s computer users routinely include a broad spectrum of professionals who use these tools in pure research, applied research, and professional practice. Next, clerical personnel became users. Computers appeared in functional areas of organizations with large clerical staffs, what man calls the first office automation revolution. In these areas, applications included transaction processing, for example, payroll, inventory, and order-entry. Automation was introduced principally for what Landau, Bair, and Shalom call “cost displacement“ applications, saving labor costs by substituting capital for labor. Currently, the user community is expanding to include management staff. Few managers in organizations of any size have been untouched by computer services and systems. At a minimum, they have received computer printout reports. At most, they may have used systems through some intermediary. In the emerging generation of office automation, as Martin has described, managers are expected to become hands-on users of an array of software. An objective of this generation of office automation is to remove certain tasks from managerial and professional positions by reallocation to a combination of clerical positions and information processing hardware and software. Open systems models of organizations, discussed by Daniel in this issue of Perspectives, provides an understanding of these design issues. Control Task Structure Task structure includes both (1) what work one is to perform, and (2) how one is to perform it. It is the “how“ which is the primary focus here. To the Classical Management of school which was prominent early in this century, deciding how work was to be performed was a management responsibility, not merely a management prerogative. Followers of this school of thought directed their attention primarily to the production activities of industry. Responsibility for structuring the tasks for clerical workers is still generally considered to rest with management. Many of the tasks of those workers have been described as routine, standardized, structured, and consequently easily rationalized, i.e., separated into a set of simple steps. It is this last quality that facilitates automating the function. In the Human Relations school of thought, development of participatory management allows the workers to have an input in the design of their tasks—even a substantial input—but the responsibility for granting and approving the input has remained with management. In effect, the manager has standardized the work processes of clerical and production line workers. Organizations have several means of assuring that they are able to produce an output which is consistent. Among these mechanisms are: (1) standardization of process—the procedures which are to be followed in performing a task, (2) standardization of output—specifications which each unit must meet, and (3) standardization of skills—instruction on how work is to be performed. This standardization extends to the forms that are used, the tools applied, and the manner in which they are applied. In contrast, the manager is given abroad latitude over the processes to perform his or her job. The organization of one＇s work has been considered a prerogative of the manager, although Stress man has challenged this view as a means of organization＇s better managing its information flow. In effect, this latitude represents a standardization of the “what“ of a manager＇s work, but not of the “how,“ the processes which produce this output. The flexibility of the manager＇s choice of work processes allows for the development of work habits, which to the external observer may seem idiosyncratic. The tools used by the manager in drafting memos and reports—whether pencil and paper, pen and paper, dictation machine, or typewriter— are generally a personal choice rather than an organizational mandate. This flexibility has long allowed management (and professional staff) to choose to bring work home. During media transformations, secretarial staff may reformat information prepared by the manager to conform to the organization＇s format, should one exist. For professionals, what tasks they perform, and how the tasks are to be performed are set out in codes of conduct which provide formal and informal guidelines. This is a means of external control in standardizing the process of organizational work. Professional workers also perform some tasks which are similar to those of managerial staff, e.g., supervising projects and people. These tasks may be controlled by the organization according to its standardization of output. In summary, differences in the control over task structure can be seen in professional, managerial, and clerical personnel. While managerial and clerical tasks have been largely the provinces of their organization—internally controlled—professional tasks involve the professional society＇s standards of acceptability, and thus are externally controlled. In this respect, the organization has relatively less control over the task structure and work processes for professional staff than for managerial and clerical staff. Office automation is designed to have an impact on the task structure, i.e., the process by which one performs an activity. These differences in task structure control raise the possibility of it being a mediating variable in office automation models; differences in task structure control may lead to qualitative differences in office system designs. Computer-Based Information Systems Office automation includes a range of systems, including a variety of software and data. The combination may include databases which receive input from many organizational units and functional areas as well as personal databases. Some systems are designed to be used by many workers in a mandatory and specified manner as part of the job requirements and as a condition of employment. Other systems may be used to mechanize a task at the option of the user; the user is also free to perform that task manually. Existing Systems with Required Use Management Information Systems (MIS) are a principal class of information system for modern organizations. MIS collects data for a database, manipulates it, and produces reports to a broad spectrum of managers concerned with decision making and accountability. Many data entry tasks are small components of larger MIS, with global databases spanning organization units and being continually updated. In order for the system to process information properly, data entry personnel must use the system in a prescribed manner. If they do not, the accuracy and validity of the receiving database may be compromised. There is no room for individual creativity or innovation on the part of individuals providing input to the system＇s database. Transaction processing stuff use software according to a standard manual which applies to all workers with similar responsibilities. Systems can be sabotaged by personnel in the data input chain who cannot or will not provide complete and accurate data for the database. MIS have a number of characteristics relevant to emerging office systems. First, MIS are integrated across organization functions and levels of responsibility. Individuals cannot unilaterally change system procedures without compromising the system. Second, MIS automate some organizational communication and information flows through collection and manipulation of input data. Third, MIS are planned and designed to serve stated organizational functions and objectives. Fourth, workers, particularly those providing input data, must use the system, and use it in a prescribed manner. Other examples of mandatory systems involve personal databases. Word processing systems are designed to be used by secretaries and word processing operators to prepare documents which are requested by others, e.g., a manager or professional. Document characteristics—such as length, footnotes, permanence—and their contents—such as vocabulary and topic—may vary across organization subunits. Secretaries use software for tasks specified by others. Again, use of this information technology is not voluntary to the worker, but is required for the job, and its use is defined in a standardized manner without modification by the individual user. Existing Systems with Optional Use Managers enjoy some leeway in how they use MIS output, notwithstanding the intended benefits built into the system design. MIS have report-generating modules which prepare standardized reports for the anticipated needs of each manager. While these systems specify mandatory modes for the entry of data, there are no enforceable requirements for use of system-generated output. In fact, there is a large literature on the failure of some systems to provide managers with information that is necessary for job performance, or even useful. Specify reports may not be timely, accurate, or necessary. Martin and system design stages are more frequent and more time-consuming than errors in the coding stage. These shortcomings have been an impetus for the development of user-controlled analytic tools and data management systems. The distinction between mandatory and optional use of systems is important because it relates to different models used for the design and implementation of each of these systems. Mandatory systems of office automation bear a resemblance to MIS (particularly data input aspects), an area to which we may turn for models (see Mick for a description of some of these models). In contrast, optional use or nonuse of systems may be seen as the diffusion of innovation which is discussed later in the article. 新旧办公自动化模式 埃利奥特·科尔 新一代的办公自动化系统结合新的和现有的软件及程序。与此同时经理能够从浩如烟海的软件工具中做出选择，他们也可能需要使用某些其他软件等等。这篇文章讨论办公自动化在组织设计中的应用：成熟的计算机系统作为一个组织的设计应用，新兴的办公自动化系统作为另一种应用。文章得出结论，管理信息系统模式发展成为成熟的系统，可能应用软件的使用需要单个工人产生帮助;创新模式为计算机系统的开发，特别是个体劳动者可以选择所需类型的软件，提供帮助。
新一代的办公自动化系统结合了现有的新概念和组件。虽然有可能是一个组合的首次应用但也有可能替代了其他组合的应用。办公自动化取决于我们的理解能力和计划力。本文探索了一些办公自动化的基本假设，然后根据当前充足的模型评估和分析了第一次使用的新产品和被替代应用的旧产品。文章开始讨论办公自动化的相关设计的因素。接下来是讨论了成熟的计算机信息系统，特别是管理信息系统（MIS），其次讨论了信息系统和新兴系统的相似之处和差异。最后，文章探讨了使用创新模式和其相关的扩散信息范围内的办公自动化研究科学。
组织设计 组织设计、结构和功能息息相关，从而占据了办公自动化活动的核心作用。这样的设计涉及两个基本要素，各类组织中的职位和控制任务结构。办公自动化系统假定这两种元素的存在。
人才类型 电脑已协助了人类近40年。职位级别使得早期的用户群体不同于新兴集团。现在经理们已经成为终端用户。
在过去，这被列为专业管理，基于广度和深度的专业化的白领的任务。专业技术职务有很大的垂直专业化，也就是说，他们在一个狭窄的区域需要巨大的知识深度。相比之下，管理岗位要求极大的专业化水平，也就是说，他们需要宽广的知识面，但不需要太多的深度与广度。经理被认为是通才，而不是专家。本文是基于在狭窄的广度和深度而创作的。
第一台计算机的用户是可以应用信息技术和扩展工作团队能力的专家（科学家）。这些“增值”的应用，使用朗·拜尔·西格曼的术语，包括解决复杂的数学问题。今天的电脑用户经常是知识广泛的专业人士，他们使用这些工具进行专业研究，应用研究和专业实践。下一步，教职人员将成为用户。电脑出现有大量文职工作人员的专业组织领域，这就是齐斯曼说的第一次办公自动化革命。在这些领域的应用包括以下这些：例如，交易处理，工资，库存，订单输入。自动化，被学者朗道，拜尔，西格曼称之为“成本位移”的应用，以劳动力成本节省代替劳动资本。
目前，办公自动化，包括管理人员的用户群体正在扩大。大部分组织中的个别经理已经接触了电信设备制造商的计算机服务和系统。至少，他们已经收到电脑打印报告。或许，他们可能已经通过一些中介机构使用上了系统。正如马丁所述，在新一代的办公自动化，经理已如预期那样成为首软件阵列的用户。
这一代的办公自动化的目标是替代测试某些对通过重新分配到文职岗位相结合的任务管理和专业位置进行信息处理的硬件和软件。丹尼尔所组织讨论的开放式系统模型，提供了一个了解这些设计问题的思路。
控制任务结构 任务结构包括（1）去执行什么工作；
（2）如何执行它。这里“如何做”成为主要焦点。在本世纪初出现的古典管理学校强调决定如何进行工作管理是一个经理的责任，而不仅仅是一个管理特权，这个学校的追随者认为主导他们注意力的主要是生产活动行业。人们对构建文职任务的回应仍然普遍是对管理责任的松懈。这些工人的任务普通，规范，层次分明，因此很容易合理化，即可以完成一组简单的步骤。这是有利于自动化功能的最后保证。人类关系学参与管理思想的发展，使工人在其设计中有一个输入任务，甚至大量投入，但责任授予和批准的输入一直被管理。有效化，标准化文书和生产一线工人的工作流程，这种标准化延伸所使用的形式，工具的应用，并延伸到它们的应用方式。
相比之下，经理在进程执行中，他的工作被赋予了广泛的权利。组织中，经理一个人的工作一直被认为是一种特权，斯特拉斯曼虽然已经质疑这种观点但组织的手段可以更好地管理其信息流。实际上，这个范围代表一个标准化：“什么”是经理的工作，而不是进程“如何”产生输出。经理对工作流程选择的灵活性允许工作习惯的发展，虽然这些对外部人员来说或许很奇特。经理在起草备忘录和报告所使用的工具是否是笔和纸，听写机，打字机一般是个人的选择，而不是一个组织任务。这种灵活性长期以来允许管理员（和专业工作人员）选择回家工作。在媒体的转换中，文秘人员可能重新准备符合该组织格式的信息，这也应该存在。
对于专业人士，他们执行什么任务以及如何执行任务，行为守则可以提供正式和非正式的指导方针。这种规范的过程，是组织工作的一个外部控制手段。专业工作者也执行一些类似的管理工作任务，例如，监督项目和工人。组织可以根据这些任务控制其输出的标准化。总之，专业，管理，文书人员可以看出超过控制任务结构的差异。虽然管理和文书一直工作于其组织内部，但是控制专业的任务涉及专业协会可接受的标准，从而进行外部控制。在这些方面，该组织有比管理和文职人员相对专业的工作人员完成控制任务结构和工作流程。任务结构对办公自动化设计的影响，即哪一个执行过程中的活动，任务结构控制这些差异提高它的可能性是在办公室的中介变量自动化模型;控制任务结构设计的差异在办公系统中可能会导致质的区别。
基于计算机的信息系统 办公自动化系统包括的范围涵盖各种软件和数据。该组合可能包括来自许多组织的数据库单位和职能领域以及个人数据库。有些系统的设计使得工作要求和就业条件被涉及，工人中的一部分可以以强制和固定的方式执行。其他系统可进行机械化执行用户的选项，用户也通过手动自由执行任务。
现有系统要求使用 管理信息系统（MIS）是一个主流的现代组织的信息系统。MIS收集系统数据库中的数据，操纵这些数据，并向有关管理人员产生具有决策和问责制的广谱报告。与全球数据库跨越组织单位的不断被更新相比，许多数据录入任务只是巨大的MIS系统的中的一个小部分。为了处理信息系统正确，数据录入人员必须在订明的方式下使用该系统。如果他们不这样做，精度和接收数据库的有效性可能会受到影响。系统的数据库输入到个人的部分没有提供个人的创造力或创新的余地。事务处理的工作人员使用的软件根据工人追究相同责任适用于所有标准手册。输入的数据链在工作人员不能准确的为数据库更新数据时，数据库可能被破坏。
MIS系统有一些与新兴的办公系统相关特性。首先体现在MIS系统集成到组织的职能和责任水平上。第一，个人不能单方面改变系统程序而不损害系统。第二，管理信息系统实现自动化，通信和信息流经输入、收集和处理可产生准确数据。第三，管理信息系统的规划和设计服务可以确定组织的职能和目标。第四，工人，尤其是那些提供输入数据的工人，可以用规定的方式使用该系统。
其他强制系统的例子包括个人数据库。文字处理系统被设计成秘书使用，并且文字处理等被设计为运营商准备，例如，经理或专家要求的文件。文件的特点,比如长度，脚注，持久以及相关词汇和主题等内容可能因为组织的不同而有所差异。秘书使用软件的任务指定他人。同时，使用这种信息技术不是工人自愿的，而是工作需要的，它的定义是一个无需修改个人用户的标准化的方式。
使用现有的系统 管理人员享受他们使用MIS系统输出的便捷，系统的设计尽管达到预期的利益。
MIS系统具有报告生成模块的功能，这个模块准备预期的标准化报告从而满足每个经理的需求。虽然这些系统指定强制性数据录入方式，但是没有强制执行使用系统生成的输出的要求。事实上，为经理提供一些系统失败必要信息的大型文献甚至是有益的。预先设定的报告可能不是及时，准确，或有必要的。马丁指出，系统设计阶段用户面对的软件错误比在编码阶段的错误更频繁，更耗时。这些缺点一直是发展的动力，并且是用户控制的分析工具和数据管理系统。
强制性和选择性之间的区别非常重要，因为它涉及到设计和实施这些系统不同的模式。强制性的办公自动化系统承担相似的MIS（特别是数据输入方面）区域，我们可以由模型得知。相比之下，使用或者未使用的系统可能被视为创新扩散，本文会继续讨论。
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